AERREVA  H-Series

Declining Sources of Electricity

Primary energy sources
All-electric vehicles (EVs) run on electricity, which is produced in the United States mainly from fossil fuels (60.4%) and nuclear energy (18.2%). While EVs emit no tailpipe emissions, using electricity produced from these fuel sources causes significant pollution elsewhere, in addition, are not very efficient at producing electricity. Around two-thirds of the energy from these fuel sources are lost as power plant waste heat. To fully recharge a 100 kWh EV battery, for example, requires burning either 142.5 pounds of coal or 927.5 cubic feet of natural gas, which includes waste heat and plant-to-battery transfer losses. The energy used to extract, produce, and transport these fuel sources is not included. For nuclear energy, a single uranium fuel pellet can recharge the battery over fourteen times. However, producing uranium-235 has several issues, including widespread radioactive waste and accidents. Additionally, the front end of the nuclear fuel cycle is energy-intensive, that can result in the Energy Return on Investment (EROI) ratio to range from the teens to an energy sink, depending on the source and ore grade.

Global Energy Crisis
Globally, it is estimated that proven reserves of oil, natural gas, coal, and uranium will last for another 57, 49, 139, and 90 years, respectively, if consumption levels remain the same. In the United States, the oil, natural gas, and coal reserves (mostly low grade bituminous and lignite coal) will last for around 5, 86, and 400 years, respectively, without taking into account new discoveries. As far as nuclear energy, 95% of the uranium used in nuclear power plants in the U.S. is imported from countries that have higher grades of uranium ore. Many EU nations are already facing an energy crisis due to the reduction or elimination of gas supplies from Russia. As the extraction of oil becomes more energy-intensive, the automotive industry will shift from predominantly gasoline-powered vehicles to all-electric vehicles that will then rely mostly on natural gas for their power. Once extracting natural gas becomes more energy-intensive, coal is likely to become the primary source of energy used to generate electricity.

Solar and wind farms generate 3.9% and 10.2% of the total electricity production in the United States, respectively. However, these energy sources are intermittent and tend to fluctuate frequently. They have annual capacity factors of only 28% and 35%, respectively. Therefore, to provide a continuous supply of electricity to consumers, load-following power plants are needed to support these renewable energy sources. However, power plants that ramp up and down lose efficiency, which leads to increased emissions. Hydropower, which accounts for about 6.2% of total electricity production in the US, can provide baseload power 24/7. However, hydropower’s capacity factor is still around 40% due to the fluctuation in water availability. The power grid is already under pressure, particularly during the summer months when air conditioning systems are in high demand. Adding tens of millions of electric vehicles that would rely on the grid for their power would only further strain it, resulting in more outages and faster depletion of our energy resources. A link to the electrical grid, primary sources of energy and EV efficiency is further explored on our Electrical Grid page.

Solution for Clean Sustainable Transportation

Introducing the AERREVA self-charging all-electric vehicle concepts (SC-EV). The design concepts focuses on high mileage per kilowatt-hour, and high solar and wind energy output. By using renewable energy sources, the solar-wind hybrid subsystems are able to produce enough energy for daily commutes or long-distance trips without relying on the electrical grid. Main features include an extendable solar subsystem and wind generating subsystem that can be deployed in favorable weather conditions. Surplus energy, especially on windy days, can be used to partially or fully supply electricity to a home, and which through net metering, can also reduce a home owners utility bill with renewable energy credits. Depending on electricity rates, wind conditions, and the number of sunlight hours, home credits can range anywhere from around $100 to $500 per month.

The solar subsystem, housed in the upper deck, features retractable solar panels that can substantially increase the number of solar cells, and also tilt, tracking the sun. Tilting panels can produce much more solar power than stationary solar panels, which can only produce peak solar power when the suns rays are perpendicular to the solar panel. The horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT) subsystem, stowed in the aft section, features a telescoping tower, extendable blades (energy output for a HAWT can be quadrupled by doubling its rotor diameter), and a wind tracking system. Once the vehicle is parked, the subsystems can then be activated automatically when favorable weather conditions are detected, or automatically stowed away during adverse weather such as hail, extreme winds, or icing, conditions that could cause damage to its subsystems, or parked in a car port or garage.

A small wind turbine that is directly connected to the battery charger has a number of advantages over a large distant wind farm. Firstly, there are no long-distance transmission losses. Secondly, maintenance is easier as there is no need to travel long distances or to climb tall towers. This results in less expensive repairs. Additionally, smaller turbines can be placed closer together, whereas a single large turbine requires up to 80 acres of land to avoid interference from other turbines. Smaller turbines have a lower blade tip speed (around 100 mph versus 180 mph), which reduces the chance of leading edge erosion, blade furniture detachment, delamination, or blade structural failure due to hitting birds, lightning strikes, rainfall, salt, dust, insects, and other airborne particulates. Replacing a damaged large wind turbine can be expensive, with the cost of a single blade reaching up to $300,000.

The vehicles main body construction features include centerline tandem seating that sits above the battery compartment, that can contribute to vehicle stability, handling, and protection of both passengers and batteries. Access to the batteries is located at the back end, where a slide-out tray that houses the batteries can be pulled from the vehicle. The battery compartment also serves as a seat and chassis support. The battery tray is versatile and can accommodate different types of batteries, such as lithium-ion, absorbent glass mat, or even lead-acid. The patent pending AERREVA H-Series has various models designed for different operating environments. Energy production estimates are available on the solar and wind energy pages. A new V-Series configured with a different type of wind turbine, that’s suited for areas with shifting winds is also in the works.

The H-Series is a combination of various wind turbines and solar panels that can be customized to suit different geographic locations. The HAWT is extendable and can be paired with either a tiltable (T) or non-tiltable (S) solar array subsystem. The number of blades on the turbine rotor can be varied to optimize performance in different wind conditions. More blades generate more torque in low wind conditions, while fewer blades, such as the 2nd and 3rd three-blade versions, are better for high wind conditions. Even blade configurations can be neatly stowed in the aft section of the vehicle, while the 3-blade model (3H) with the largest rotor diameter can be stowed as shown below. A tracking solar array is best suited for areas with low sun angles, while a non-tilting solar array is better suited for areas with high amounts of sunlight.

The four different configurations include:
TH – Tracking solar array with an HAWT fitted with an even number of blades.
SH – Extendable solar array (non-tracking) with an HAWT.
T3H – Tracking solar array with a three-blade HAWT.
S3H – Extendable solar array (non-tracking) with a three-blade HAWT.

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H-Series features
The vehicle has a cabin positioned at the center line to improve visibility, handling, and safety. It also has a lightweight design and a small frontal surface area for higher efficiency. The battery pack at the center line is removable. Other features include large bypass air channels for better aerodynamics, a horizontal axis wind turbine subsystem that can be extended, a top-side solar array for charging while on the go, and a retractable solar array subsystem. The vehicle also has sloped top side decks to allow rainwater to run off, an extendable anemometer for measuring wind speed and direction, a large cabin door for easy entry and exit, and removable overhead canopies for open-air driving or emergency exit. The vehicle has a radiator to cool the battery pack, dampers to cool solar cells and increase efficiency, all-around crumple zones to protect occupants, and easily removable seats. Its wide body offers stability and enables the accommodation of large solar and wind turbine subsystems. Moreover, most suspension components are protected from the airstream. The vehicle is equipped with side and rear view cameras and has a spare tire that is stored in the outer wall compartment.

Battery Options
The battery pack, located centerline under the seats, is protected by belly panels and chassis rails. It can hold various types of batteries, including Lithium-ion and Absorbent Glass Mat. The estimated range is 1,885 km (1,171 miles) for Lithium-ion and 311 km (193 miles) for AGM. Larger battery packs increase range but also add weight, which increases rolling resistance. Lead acid batteries are better suited to subzero conditions, but have less than a quarter of the Watt Hours per Kilogram energy of Li-Ion batteries.

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Generating Solar Energy

When the Sun sensor detects favorable conditions, it activates the solar array subsystem while parked.

Solar Array Capacity
The energy produced by solar cells depends on various factors such as the Sun’s strength and angle, air quality, and the efficiency of the solar cells. At sea level, the Sun’s energy density is approximately 1,000 Watts per square meter. Solar cells with a 22% efficiency can produce up to 220 watts per square meter. When all the solar arrays are combined and positioned horizontally, they can generate 1,512 watts, or 7.56 kWh in one day, which can power a vehicle for daily trips of around 60 miles. Mileage estimates are based on an energy consumption of around 6.714 kilowatts per hour (kWh) or 122 watt hours per mile at 55 mph. However, tracking can more than double energy production, especially in winter months when the Sun’s angle is low. Production estimates are based on an average of 5 kWh per square meter of solar energy as shown by solar energy maps from the U.S. DOE, National Renewable Energy Laboratory. The amount of solar energy varies based on the region, with Southwestern states having more energy per day than Northeast parts of the U.S.

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Generating Wind Energy

The vehicle’s wind turbine subsystem features a telescoping mast and rotor with extendable blades that can be stored in the rear section. An ultrasonic wind anemometer detects wind speed, duration, and direction to activate the turbine when favorable winds are detected when the vehicle is parked. The horizontal-axis wind turbine (HAWT) can have either an even number of blades (2, 4, 6) or a 3-blade version, which is the largest in the H-Series and produces the highest power output. Turbines with more blades provide more torque in low winds, while fewer blades increase the flow speed and are better suited for high wind conditions. When the vehicle is parked, the various HAWT subsystems can be activated when favorable conditions are detected.

3 Blade HAWT

6 Blade HAWT

The other blade configurations, a 4-blade, are not currently displayed.

Rotor Diameter	Wind Speed	Wind Speed
6 feet	15 mph -> 130 watts	30 mph -> 1,169 watts
9 feet	15 mph -> 294 watts	30 mph -> 2,640 watts
11 feet	15 mph -> 441 watts	30 mph -> 3,950 watts

Wind speeds of 20 mph or more in areas like the Midwest and Great Plains can generate enough energy in 24 hours to power a vehicle for 500 miles, and more with stronger winds. Mileage estimates are based on energy consumption of about 6.714 kWh or 122 watt hours per mile at 55 mph.

Solar Energy + Wind Energy
Over 30 days, the solar panels and wind turbine can produce a total of 3,070 kWh of energy. This amount of energy is capable of charging an 80 kWh battery pack 39 times. For additional examples of renewable energy production, please visit our solar and wind energy pages.

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Energy is Money
Net billing or net metering with AERREVA electric vehicles can help lower the electricity bills of a household. Electricity rates vary from state to state, with Hawaii having one of the highest rates at an average of 46.52 cents per kilowatt-hour (kWh), while Nebraska charges around 10.58 cents per kWh. By combining the energy output from solar and wind sources, it’s possible to generate approximately 1,068 kWh of energy every month, with renewable energy credits amounting to around $113.00 in Nebraska and $496.83 in Hawaii. As the demand for energy increases and the shift to more expensive energy sources takes place, electricity prices are projected to rise.

Nationwide Wind Energy Potential
Small wind turbines can produce significant energy. One million turbines generating 28 million kWh can power almost a million homes in 20 mph winds for 24 hours. At 30 mph winds, the same number of turbines could power four million homes. Even with 15 mph winds, 10 million kWh could be produced daily, enough to power half a million homes.

(28 kWh x 1,000,000 = 28,000,000 kWh) (20 mph winds/24 hours).
(94 kWh x 1,000,000 = 94,000,000 kWh) (30 mph winds/24 hours).
10,000,000 kWh (10 mph winds/24 hours).

Energy Production Estimates
The estimates for solar and wind energy production do not account for the fact that an average car is parked around 95% of the time. Additionally, the DC to AC conversion efficiency has not been considered.

Development Stage
AERREVA H-Series EVs are currently in the early stages of development, from conceptual drawings to patent applications and prototypes. The next step is to build a functioning prototype. The vehicle and its wind and solar subsystems and methods are Patent Pending (Utility Patent Application) filed by DLA Piper LLP (US), a global company that provides intellectual property and patent services. They have been extremely helpful, providing information and guidance throughout the process.

Acknowledgments
The author acknowledges the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the United States Department of Energy (DOE), the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) for providing data.

Other AERREVA series
Currently in development are various AERREVA series and their variants. This includes a larger horizontal-axis wind turbine with a tower design, a larger solar array subsystem that can be attached to any variant, a new type of wind turbine that is more suitable for urban areas where wind direction changes frequently, and a wider cabin design for increased seating

LH – larger HAWT and tower.
LSP – larger solar array subsystem.
V Series – new type of wind turbine.
W Series – wider cabin.